CLL 40 Years On - The Learner's Role as a Member of the Learning Community

Ron and Susan Zemke (1981) enumerated in "30 Things We Know for Sure About Learning," thirty "truisms" about adult learning and adult learners in three categories: learner motivation, curriculum design and classroom practice. Concurrent with new and revolutionary theories in adult training and education occurring during the late 1970's - late 1980's, informed by advances in psychology and an emerging social awareness, the field of second language acquisition by adults also abounded with alternative approaches, methodologies and techniques to teaching.

Community Language Learning (CLL) developed by Charles Curran and his associates, combines principles of learning theory with counseling attitudes and techniques. Its proponents were influenced primarily by insights from 1950's holistic psychological counseling approaches. More recent writings on CLL theory refer to language acquisition as a social process.

The learner's role is to become a member of the given language learning community -- whether in a traditional classroom setting, or in some alternative place -- and to learn by interacting with fellow members of that community. Its syllabus emerges from the interaction between the learner's expressed communicative intentions and the teacher's expression of these into suitable target language mastery goals. The learner is seen as starting out somewhat dependent upon the teacher and other classmates, but developing into an independent learner -- growing even to take on a leadership role in the classroom. Instructional materials: evolve out of the interactions of the community; actually, in CLL, the textbook is not considered a necessary component. More about CLL:

• CLL operates out of what learners feel they need to know.
• In CLL the teacher/knower is counselor, supporter, and facilitator.
• CLL is rooted in in a communal relationship between learners and teachers acting supportively and in concert.
• CLL language practice is innovative, with an emphasis on language production.
• CLL holds that learning is multimodal (Curran 1976: 79), and sees learners' commitment, attention, and group participation as central to overcoming barriers of embarrassment, aversion to risk, learning styles and preferences (i.e., the affective domain).

Even though it's 40 years old, Community Language Learning can still be relevant when incorporated, as appropriate, into your curriculum design and classroom practice as part of an effective, eclectic approach to adult language education.

LEARN MORE:

Curran, Charles. 1976. Counseling-Learning in Second Languages. Apple River, IL: Apple River Press.

Richards, Jack C. and Theodore S. Rodgers. 1986. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. A Description and Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Zemke, Ron., and Susan Zemke. "30 Things We Know for Sure About Adult Learning," TRAINING Magazine, June 1981. Minn: Lakewood Publications. (Revisited in June 1995 -- they asked themselves, "Has anything changed?") Found at: http://www.trainingmag.com/sites/default/files//TrainingMagazine_1995_AdultsLearning.pdf

30 Chairs Facing Forward, Or Can We Do Better Than That?

ON CURRICULUM DESIGN. The insights gained from early research into training the adult learner continue to inform adult education practice as well as the way we teach English as a Second Language (ESL) even today. Ron and Susan Zemke (1981) enumerated in "30 Things We Know for Sure About Learning," thirty "truisms" about adult learning and adult learners in three categories: learner motivation, curriculum design and classroom practice.

The authors refer to M.S. Knowles' (1980) observation that when confronted with rows of "30 chairs facing forward," adult learners will be prepared for boredom, lack of interaction with classmates, and likely looking to the teacher/trainer as the sole source of input. Knowles' theories proposed a rather dramatic alternative in Self-Directed Learning. The Zemkes believe the adult learner must be free to "take a hand" in the design of the curriculum and the way it's presented. Building upon the insights gained from 35 years' worth of research in the field, easily accessed through modern-day technology, educators of adults have at their fingertips countless resources for curriculum design.

Best practices in adult ed suggest striking a balance between independent, isolated self-teaching and guided presentation by a skilled professional devoted to students' mastery over the course content in a fun, engaging way while accomplishing the institution's goals (as we know, formal testing still plays a role in private, public and community-based centers -- results drive funding!) Such a trained professional knows how to offer a shared vision of the educational guideposts to follow as adult learners make progress in mastery over the content.

Modern classroom presentation, especially in the ESL school room, involves well-planned, sequenced segments of short duration, and masterful use of dyads, mixed groups, round tables, audio-visual stands with computers and headsets, a white board with "smart" technology which interacts with the learner, free movement, a variety of printed materials (books, newspapers, magazines, teacher-made quizzes, realia, etc.), maybe manipulatives and games, and a nice combination of "good noise" (pupil input) and quiet attention to bring about adult learner success.

READ ABOUT IT:

Knowles, M.S. The Modern Practice of Adult Education: From Pedagogy to Andragogy (2nd ed.) New York: Cambridge Books, 1980. Found at: http://www.umsl.edu/~henschkej/articles/a_The_%20Modern_Practice_of_Adult_Education.pdf  

Zemke, R., and S. Zemke. "30 Things We Know for Sure About Adult Learning," TRAINING Magazine, June 1981. Minn: Lakewood Publications. (Revisited in June 1995 -- they asked themselves, "Has anything changed?") Found at: http://www.trainingmag.com/sites/default/files//TrainingMagazine_1995_AdultsLearning.pdf

Even the Self-Directed Learner Needs Facetime with You

Ron and Susan Zemke (1981) caution the teacher/trainer of adults to adopt an eclectic approach to content delivery. They refer to the theories of Malcolm S. Knowles, a proponent of andragogy, self-direction in learning and informal adult education. Knowles (1975) defined "self-directed learning" as a process by which individuals take the initiative, with our without the assistance of others, in

• diagnosing their learning needs, 
• formulating learning goals, 
• identifying human and material resources for learning, 
• choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and 
• evaluating learning outcomes. In other words, the adult learner needs a hand in shaping the curriculum

There was a time when only face-to-face, one-on-one access to the teacher was considered the best and only method of content delivery. And whether for course administration or instructional purposes, most faculty lacked experience with the tools (blackboard, Angel, etc.) to use them as anything more than an augmentation of the traditional classroom lecture.

Private universities and colleges have climbed on the bandwagon, seeking to draw in prospective students with so-called, "blended" courses wherein the larger part of the course requirements may be satisfied with online presence.  State colleges accommodate adult lifestyles with programs offering flexibility, value for money, liberal transfer policies and adaptability, allowing adult learners to customize (hybridize) classes to their preferred learning style.

The Zemkes point out that even the self-professed, self-directed learning enthusiasts will still desire short lectures or seminars with "facetime" to pick the instructor's brains. Here might be called drawbacks to a completely online approach:

1. Some situations lend themselves to Self-Directed Learning better than others. Second language learning classes, hands-on cooking or automotive repair courses, e.g., come to mind. Self-directed learning methods compared with other learning methods in nursing education proved less popular among mature students, in one study. http://joannabriggslibrary.org/index.php/jbisrir/article/view/532/1827
2. Self-Directed Learning needs to be combined with other learning methods for content to be fully learned. In the field of biomedical education, one researcher warns it's way too early to "throw in the towel" on traditional delivery. http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6920/13/105
3. Since Self-Directed Learning is unstructured and independent, it is easy for students to become unproductive due to wide variations in student motivation, technological fluency and prior education. Many adult learners arrive at higher education with inadequate preparation, poor skills or undeveloped work habits. Newly-arrived immigrants and mature workers might be new to online learning. All of these factors demand that one-on-one interaction with a caring and effective teacher be a component of the hybrid course.  

Read about it: Knowles, M. S. (1975) Self-Directed Learning. A guide for learners and teachers, Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall/Cambridge.

Andragogy in Action - Adult Learner as "Neglected Species"

Ron and Susan Zemke (1981) quote from Malcolm Knowles (1973; 1990) in their article for TRAINING referring to research in the field of adult learning as a trip up the Amazon with its discovery of new species and rapids-like hazards. It was Knowles who first suggested in 1980 that adult learners differ from children and that teaching theory as it pertains to adults (andragogy) must rely on 5 basic tenets:

Self-concept

As a person matures his/her self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.

Adult Learner Experience

As a person matures he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.

Readiness to Learn

As a person matures his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles.

Orientation to Learning

As a person matures his/her time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his/her orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject- centeredness to one of problem centeredness.

Motivation to Learn

As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12)

Zemke, R. and Susan. (1981) 30 things we know for sure about adult learning. Training, v18 n6 p45-46,48-49,52. Found at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ246636

Knowles, M. S. (1973; 1990) The Adult Learner. A neglected species (4e), Houston: Gulf Publishing. 2e. 292 + viii pages.

Knowles, Malcolm S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education; From andragogy to
pedagogy. Cambridge Adult Education.

Knowles, M. S. et al (1984) Andragogy in Action. Applying modern principles of adult education, San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

The Adult Learner Experience: Self-Directed Growth and Successful Efforts to Learn and Change

Back in 1981, Ron and Susan Zemke sought to enumerate the things we as teachers / trainers / facilitators / classroom aides / tutors know about adult learners and their motivation, designing curriculum for adults, and working with adult in the classroom.  They call them "truisms" based on a fairly large body of research conducted over the years about the adult learner.

They point out that our adult learning knowledge base is derived from three main sources: the "tips 'n' tricks" accumulated along the way by teachers/trainers, the "market research approach" to research about adult learner motivation, and research into nonadult (children) learning -- from child development to Skinnerian behavioral mod, to programmed instruction, to Banduran social learning.

Major contributors to adult learning motivation research such as Carol Aslanian seek to utilize sophisticated market research techniques to discern adult learner preferences for mode of delivery of instruction/training and in this case, online delivery is the overwhelming winner. Allen Tough, named "one of six most often used authors" in a survey of the Adult Education Association in 1978, pioneered the field of self-directed growth, personal change, and adults' successful efforts to learn and change.

But it was Malcolm Knowles who first suggested in 1980 that adult learners differ from children and that teaching theory as it pertains to adults (andragogy) must rely on 5 basic tenets:

Self-concept

• As a person matures his/her self concept moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed human being.

Adult Learner Experience

• As a person matures he/she accumulates a growing reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning.

Readiness to Learn

• As a person matures his/her readiness to learn becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of his/her social roles.

Orientation to Learning

• As a person matures his/her time perspective changes from one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application, and accordingly his/her orientation toward learning shifts from one of subject- centeredness to one of problem centeredness.

Motivation to Learn

• As a person matures the motivation to learn is internal (Knowles 1984:12)

SOURCES:

1.  Zemke, Ron and Susan. (1981). 30 things we know for sure about adult learning. Training, v18 n6 p45-46,48-49,52. Found at http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ246636

2. Aslanian, Carol. (2013). Online college students 2013: comprehensive data on demands and preferences. Learning House. A research report, found at http://www.learninghouse.com/ocs2013-report/

3. Tough, Allen M. (1971). The adult’s learning projects: A fresh approach to theory and practice in adult learning. Toronto: OISE (Second edition, Austin, Texas: Learning Concepts and Toronto: OISE, 1979. The full text is downloadable from allentough.com.

4. Knowles, Malcolm S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education; From andragogy to
pedagogy. Cambridge Adult Education. Mentioned in Fidishun, D. circa (2005). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach with technology. Found at http://www.lindenwood.edu/education/andragogy/andragogy/2011/Fidishun_2005.pdf 

Respecting Adult Learners' Journeys

The Zemkes knew that adults learners have expectations about educational objectives in a given course, and it's clear these should be stated early and often, not just by the classroom teacher but also by the institution. They should be codified in a contract document, at best.

Pre-testing and post-testing are also still needed to assist students to "manage" their expectations and view their own growth. It is popular to overstate the unfairness of testing these days, but I believe adults are capable of affirming objectives and standing up to the measurement of them, as it relates to personal satisfaction and the notion of tuition money well-spent.

Can teachers sharpen up their daily practices, to show respect for adult students' needs and styles, and to make learning sometimes dry material a bit more palatable? Suggestions include:

• utilizing pairs and group work (Long and Porter, 1985) and tolerating “good noise” so long as the discussions stay collaborative and on point. This shows respect for students’ adulthood by modeling normal, daily give-and-take.
• augmenting publishers' offerings with teacher-made puzzles, flash cards, felt boards, word lists, resource lists and bibliographies with website URL's for suggested home study. This enhances the role of the instructor as facilitator and reliable resource for out-of-class, self-directed learning. Thompson (2001) found that irrespective of student gender or age, application of teacher-created materials tends to sustain and attract attention, and make teaching and learning more interesting.
• permitting song and artwork in the lesson, appealing to pupils' creative side. This accepts the alternative learning styles of adult learners. (Take care when selecting a song because some songs have irregular sentence structures and vocabulary not typically used in English conversation.)
• using portfolios to aid learners’ perceptions of their growth as readers and writers, thereby reinforcing the notion of a journey toward an achievable goal - a very grownup concept.  
• instituting the habit of continuous student self-reflection concerning comprehension and satisfaction with progress through journaling. (Black & Henig (2005), Bourner (2003) and many others.) Adult students can feel free to focus on the exploration and discovery process in a less-threatening genre than a formal composition.

On Secondary Motivators for Engaging in Learning

Back in June, 1981, Ron and Susan Zemke sought to enumerate the things we as teachers / trainers / facilitators / classroom aides / tutors know about  (1) adult learners and their motivation; (2) designing curriculum for adults; and (3) working with adults in the classroom. They called them "truisms" based on a fairly large body of research conducted over the years about the adult learner.

In Truism No. 6 of their article, the Zemkes discuss the importance of increasing or maintaining a sense of self-esteem and pleasure as strong secondary motivators for adults entering into and engaging in new learning experiences. They mention Allen Tough (1979) and his co-researchers as making a major contribution to our knowledge base about adult motivation to learn.

Allen Tough and his research partners developed a model of self-directed learning (1979) which attributed the conscious anticipation of reward and benefits as a significant part of a learner's total motivation for studying. Anticipated benefits of acquiring new skills cluster around feeling pleasure, self-esteem, and enjoying the regard of others. Such persons might also be said to be certain of their control over their own destiny. 

The Zemkes postulate that "teachable moments" appear during the lives of adults and that training should not be delayed, since that will impact actual performance.

When adult students perceive that being engaged in learning, retaining knowledge or skills, and applying same to gaining a material reward (e.g., promotion at work) or gaining a symbolic reward (like credits and degrees) is more beneficial, more important to them than financial impediments, family obligations, or environmental barriers they may encounter they will embark upon their quest for learning and deserve our support as teachers.


READ ABOUT IT:

Tough, Allen. 1979, The Adult's Learning Projects, 2nd ed. Toronto: Ontario Institute of Studies in Education.

Zemke, Ron, and Susan Zemke. "30 Things We Know for Sure About Adult Learning," TRAINING Magazine, June 1981. Minn: Lakewood Publications. (Revisited in June 1995 -- they asked themselves, "Has anything changed?") Found at: http://www.trainingmag.com/sites/default/files//TrainingMagazine_1995_AdultsLearning.pdf

Integrative versus Instrumental Motivation

Back in June, 1981, Ron and Susan Zemke sought to enumerate the things we as teachers / trainers / facilitators / classroom aides / tutors know about  (1) adult learners and their motivation; (2) designing curriculum for adults; and (3) working with adult in the classroom.  Training, v18 n6 p45-46,48-49,52 Jun 1981. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ246636  They call them "truisms" based on a fairly large body of research conducted over the years about the adult learner.

In their Truism No. 5, the authors assert that adults who seek out a learning experience do so out of a kind of instrumental motivation -- "learning is a means to an end, not an end in itself."  Much research on motivation theory followed their early article.

Rebecca Oxford and Jill Shearin (1994) in their groundbreaking article, "Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical framework," (Modern Language Journal, 78, 12-28,) identified several factors that impact motivation in second language learning, including attitudes toward the target language and its speakers, goals and personal attributes. They show us that a student's motivation influences how how high their proficiency level becomes in a given new language, the level of time and effort they devote to learning, whether they'll be able to pass achievement tests, how long they can continue to maintain L2 language skills after study is concluded, and even if they'll pass on an interest and desire in that skill to their children.

Oxford and Shearin pointed out the importance of learner motivation, since "... [it is] considered by many to be one of the main determining factors in success" in mastering a new skill.

Integrative vs Instrumental 

Learners with an instrumental motivation want to learn a new skill or language because of a practical reason, e.g., getting a salary bonus or job promotion or maybe a GED diploma or college acceptance; all of which could potentially bring about a better lifestyle for them and their families. It makes sense then, that if a learner perceives the lesson content to be relevant and transferable to other situations, s/he will find learning meaningful, and motivation will increase.

Unlike these students, who seek out a learning experience, as the Zemkes state, "... because they have a use for the knowledge or skill being sought, ... learning is not its own reward," integratively motivated language learners are using language for social interaction. These sorts of language students are deeply interested in the people and culture of the language. They are likely to devote much personal effort, time and expense in acquiring the L2, even to amassing a private library of materials or circle of friends who speak the target language. Several studies have found that language learners who are integratively motivated are more successful than those who are instrumentally motivated.

The experienced language teacher recognizes that both types of pupils in their classroom have something to contribute to the lesson, and may in fact end up equally successful in the L2 learning task by end of semester.

"Managing" Student Expectations?

Back in June, 1981, Ron and Susan Zemke sought to enumerate the things we as teachers / trainers / facilitators / classroom aides / tutors know about  (1) adult learners and their motivation; (2) designing curriculum for adults; and (3) working with adult in the classroom.  They call them "truisms" based on a fairly large body of research conducted over the years about the adult learner.

Truism no. 23 deals with students expectations. Most of us know that adult returning students in the ESL class, though understandably proud of their lifetime accomplishments, are often unrealistic when it comes to estimating the amount of time and effort required to succeed in a course of study. They see themselves as shrewd managers of their time, juggling a job, family responsibilities, commitments to civic and/or religious organizations, and so forth. They'll carve out one hour a day, they say, and ace this class. Quite often, a learner discovers after the first quiz that they are in serious trouble, and they simply quit. Quitting classes can become a habit, and can negatively impact your students' careers and disrupt their personal lives as they lose money on tuition and fees, hire and dismiss babysitters, lose out on possible pay raises and/or promotions at work, etc.

READ ABOUT IT:

Zemke, R., and S. Zemke. "30 Things We Know for Sure About Adult Learning," TRAINING Magazine, June 1981. Minn: Lakewood Publications. (Revisited in June 1995 -- they asked themselves, "Has anything changed?") Found at: http://www.trainingmag.com/sites/default/files//TrainingMagazine_1995_AdultsLearning.pdf

Maryellen Weimer, Ph.D., while posting Aug 20, 2014, in Teaching Professor Blog at Faculty Focus (Reality Check: Helping to Manage Student Expectations, found at http://www.facultyfocus.com/articles/teaching-professor-blog/reality-check-helping-manage-student-expectations/) talks about this "conundrum" facing educators: We think our students ought to believe in themselves, and commit to doing well; on the other hand, we need them to be realistic about what classroom success demands in terms of time and effort.

I like her notion of bringing in "evidence-based answers," maybe by asking former students to share their advice on the course website. Maybe by providing regular reminders and review of the goals students articulate at the beginning of the course. I've even seen the idea of a quiz on the syllabus, reinforcing the point that understanding expectations is crucial for success. Keeping open the lines of communication, and seeking a balance between your and your students' expectations are key, and should clear the way for classroom success.

The Zemkes recommend clarifying and articulating everyone's expectations before getting into content on the first day. If those two are at odds, then the article writers say the problem should be acknowledged, with some negotiation and resolution attempted. But in the end, say the Zemkes, " ... the instructor can assume responsibility only for his or her own expectations, not for that of trainees."

Master Performers of the Trade

Back in June, 1981, Ron and Susan Zemke sought to enumerate the things we as teachers / trainers / facilitators / classroom aides / tutors know about  (1) adult learners and their motivation; (2) designing curriculum for adults; and (3) working with adult in the classroom. They call them "truisms" based on a fairly large body of research conducted over the years about the adult learner.

READ ABOUT IT:

Zemke, R., and S. Zemke. "30 Things We Know for Sure About Adult Learning," TRAINING Magazine, June 1981. Minn: Lakewood Publications. (Revisited in June 1995 -- they asked themselves, "Has anything changed?") Found at: http://www.trainingmag.com/sites/default/files//TrainingMagazine_1995_AdultsLearning.pdf

In this blog, I've been showing how ESOL pedagogy -- or should I say, androgogy? -- has been for some years taking on aspects of human resources training in the areas of curriculum design and classroom practice, as well as analysis of learner characteristics. 

In truism no. 25, the Zemkes advise against teacher/trainers "holding forth" rather than acting as facilitator to the learner. In their 4/27/2015 Inside Higher Ed article, " The Coaching Transformation," Christine Seifert and Richard Chapman write about the style shift from professor to coach. They remind us that such learning coaches "[E]nable the development and action planning of a learner." https://www.insidehighered.com/views/2015/04/27/essay-making-switch-professor-coach


ESOL course offerings nowadays feature shortened session duration, truncated semesters, continuous open enrollment, and home study components, with course delivery via the web (known as blended/hybrid formats, or more colloquially, “brick and click” programs) supplementing physical classrooms to support language learning of non-traditional, place-bound individuals geographically removed from traditional campuses. Adult second language learning classes are more democratic, more driven by technology, featuring open-ended questions and vigorous give-and-take. All, much more consonant with adult students' felt needs and autonomy. 

The lecturer at the podium is a thing of the past. The teacher's role as sole transmitter of of knowledge is replaced by teacher as mentor, facilitator, curator of resources, coach, sophisticated technology user, well-organized secretary, competent artist and musician, set decorator, game show host, and more. In other words, master performers of the trade. 

Zemkes Were Ahead of Their Time

Back in June, 1981, Ron and Susan Zemke sought to enumerate the things we as teachers / trainers / facilitators / classroom aides / tutors know about  (1) adult learners and their motivation; (2) designing curriculum for adults; and (3) working with adult in the classroom.  Training, v18 n6 p45-46,48-49,52 Jun 1981. http://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ246636  They call them "truisms" based on a fairly large body of research done about the adult learner.

ON CURRICULUM DESIGN. Adult learners tend to seek out short-term, relevant, practical, budget-friendly, and accessible courses. The Zemkes point out in list item 7 that the preference for application of concepts to relevant problems increases with the age. Nowadays,we often offer courses of shorter duration, with a distance learning component, and culminating in a certificate.

In item 10 of their list of truisms about adult learners, they talk about the need for a "conceptual overlap" with what is already known, for the efficient processing of new information. Likewise, we in the ESL world speak of "schema theory" and "background knowledge" as put forward by Patricia L. Carrell from Southern Illinois University, in her article, "Schema Theory and ESL Reading Pedagogy," published in December, 1983, by TESOL Quarterly v17 n4, http://203.72.145.166/tesol/tqd_2008/VOL_17_4.PDF#page=25

Carrell discusses the importance of background knowledge in teaching reading to EFL/ESL students, which became formalized as "schema theory," and basically says that efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the textual material to one’s own knowledge (called the reader’s "background knowledge," and the previously acquired knowledge structures which are called "schemata."

The Zemkes were further prescient in suggesting (in list item 15) that courses and materials need to be designed to reflect different viewpoints and value sets when working with adults in different life stages. This has become increasingly relevant to ESL curriculum design, as we in the USA absorb many more refugees into our classrooms from war-torn nations, where our pupils have lived lives vastly different from those we enjoy in our modern, fast-paced western world. Their points of view and experiences cannot be diminished or dismissed out of hand, but should be acknowledged and incorporated into lessons and texts.

Zemkes Were Right and Still Are

Back in June, 1981, Ron and Susan Zemke sought to enumerate the things we as teachers / trainers / facilitators / classroom aides / tutors know about  (1) adult learners and their motivation; (2) designing curriculum for adults; and (3) working with adult in the classroom.

Instead of being outdated or outmoded, the truisms put forth in that seminal article seem just as applicable to modern adult education practice as they did 34 years ago. For example, Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) are increasingly expected to be capable of delivering course content utilizing interactive, multimodal learning environments while maintaining a lively, welcoming, inclusive, and supportive classroom experience. See their list item 17 (" ... the adult learner often selects more than one medium ... "), item 18 ("Nonhuman media ... very influential ..."),  and item 20 ("Self-direction does not mean isolation .... the adult learner is a very efficiency-minded individual.")

READ ABOUT IT:

Zemke, R., and S. Zemke. "30 Things We Know for Sure About Adult Learning," TRAINING Magazine, June 1981. Minn: Lakewood Publications. (Revisited in June 1995 -- they asked themselves, "Has anything changed?") Found at: http://www.trainingmag.com/sites/default/files//TrainingMagazine_1995_AdultsLearning.pdf